MBS 102 - History of Religion

POLYTHEISM

Polytheism - General Overview

Polytheism is the belief in and worship of many gods. Typically, these gods are distinguished by particular functions, and often take on human characteristics. This was particularly true in ancient Greece and Rome. In other polytheistic cultures such as ancient Egypt, gods take on the form and characteristics of objects found in nature, including trees, sacred herbs, cattle, animals and animal--human hybrids.

The belief in multiple gods is probably the result of an earlier belief in vaguely defined spirits, demons and other supernatural forces. These belief systems are similar to animism, ancestor worship and totemism. However, in polytheism, these supernatural forces are personified and organized into a cosmic family. This "family" becomes the nucleus of a particular culture's belief system. The family of gods was used to explain natural phenomena and to establish a culture's role in the universe. Typically, the number of gods would expand as the culture's belief system developed, eventually resulting in a hierarchical system of deities. Over time, the lesser gods would diminish in stature or vanish altogether.

Polytheism - Ancient World

Polytheism was wide spread in the ancient world. The Egyptians had a highly developed belief system that was based on multiple gods. These gods were the cornerstone of Egyptian culture and still fascinate us today. The ancient Greeks also had an intricate system of myths based on multiple deities. The Greek gods often took on human forms and personalities, and in many cases, directly interfered with human activities. When the Roman Empire conquered the Greeks, the Romans assimilated much of the Greek polytheistic culture. Over time, as Rome's influence spread, it absorbed other gods from the other cultures that it conquered. In addition to Egypt, Greece and Rome, polytheism was widespread in ancient Asian, African, European and Native American cultures.

Polytheism - Modern World

Polytheism still represents much of the world today. Except for the monotheistic (belief in one God) religions of Christianity, Judaism and Islam, most of the world's religions are overwhelmingly polytheistic. Polytheism characterizes the beliefs of Hinduism, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Shintoism in the East, and also contemporary tribal religions in Africa and the Americas. These religions are widely practiced throughout the world and remain very popular in their ancestral areas.

Some polytheistic beliefs are also popular in today's Western Civilization. This appears to be a result of increased immigration of Eastern cultures and the mainstream popularity of New Age pluralism. Unlike Christian, Jewish and Islamic doctrine, there is rarely an absolute truth associated with polytheistic thinking. Ideas of morality (notions of right and wrong) are relative to the individual or culture. Each believer is free to worship the god of his or her choice in the manner of his or her liking. As a result, each person is free to behave as he or she sees fit. Although polytheistic systems provide flexibility and a relativistic lack of accountability, they often leave followers with no sense of ultimate purpose and no prospect for eternal hope. Monotheistic faiths such as Christianity teach that absolute truth is reality, mankind is on earth for a purpose, and eternal salvation is possible for those seeking a reconciled relationship with the one true God.

Is there polytheism in the Bible?

Polytheism is a term meaning the worship or belief in more than one god. In the ancient days, humanity used gods as a means of explaining their lives. Today we have science and observe cause and effect relationships, but before this existed people had no information on the stars, the sea, the rivers, the sun, etc.

For example, agriculture was, and continues to be, a major industry. The very life of an economy was dependent on the fertility of the land. Weather had a great effect on this; consequently, many in the ancient world devised the god, Baal, to oversee weather patterns and fertility rites. Baal was commonly worshipped throughout the Old Testament.

Some suggest God was cruel to the worshippers of Baal, Molech, and their pagan gods. We should keep in mind God's rationale. Molech, for example was an ancient fire god. The worshippers of Molech would lay their children in fire pits, where the children would pass through the fire to Molech. Furthermore, child sacrifice was not restricted to Molech. The notion of child sacrifice causes us to recoil in horror. Imagine how much more offensive this action would be to the heavenly Father of that child.

. . . "Hear the word of the LORD, O kings of Judah and people of Jerusalem. This is what the LORD Almighty, the God of Israel, says: Listen! I am going to bring a disaster on this place that will make the ears of everyone who hears of it tingle. For they have forsaken me and made this a place of foreign gods; they have burned sacrifices in it to gods that neither they nor their fathers nor the kings of Judah ever knew, and they have filled this place with the blood of the innocent. They have built the high places of Baal to burn their sons in the fire as offerings to Baal - something I did not command or mention, nor did it enter my mind" (Jeremiah 19:3-5).

These idols were not gods; they were merely ideas. Worship is defined as a reverent love or devotion. An idol is anything that replaces, or is worshiped along with God, as God. Polytheism is a sin. As Matthew 6:24 says, "No one can serve two masters. Either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve both God and Money." It could be said that our society is based upon the accumulation of wealth; as a consequence, some worship both God and money. This is an example of polytheism.

We should not ignore its serious consequences of polytheism. We are created for God, not for our own desires. The question is whether or not you wish to serve the one true and living God, or do you wish to travel down another path?

What is monotheism?

The word monotheism comes from two Greek words - monos meaning "one" and theos meaning "God" - the belief in only one God. But to understand Monotheism, let's look at it in relation to the other positions people take about God. Atheism states that there is no God. Monotheism holds that God exists and that there is only one true God (although false gods may be acknowledged). Finally, Polytheism asserts that more than one true god exists (usually a multitude of gods as in the Greek and Roman pantheons). Everyone who takes a position on God's existence falls logically into one of these three categories. (Note: The only other logical position is to say that one does not know or cannot know if God exists. This is the agnostic position.) Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are the three major monotheistic religions in the world today.

Thus, Monotheism holds that only one God exists. But what is this one God like? To answer that question, we must answer a series of additional questions. For example, is God part of the created universe or does He live in a higher plane - is He transcendent? Pantheism holds that everything we see is part of God. In other words, God and the physical universe are one, of the same substance, or one contains the other. On the other hand, astrophysicist, Stephen Hawkins, in his book A Brief History of Time concluded that God must transcend His creation since He is the cause of all creation. Since a cause must transcend its effect, God must be transcendent also.

But is this one transcendent God a Person or a Force? If God is a force, like gravity or inertia, then He would display none of the characteristics of a person - intelligence, will, emotions, or love. In fact, if God were a Force, using the personal pronoun "He" to refer to God would be silly. But many scientists today - from microbiology to astronomy - are concluding that there was intelligence and purpose behind the creation of the universe. Whoever or whatever created the universe planned the work, took great care to set minute checks and balances in place, and went to incredible lengths so that life (you and I) could exist here on planet earth. Finally, God communicates with His creation. In short, God exhibits all the non-physical characteristics of a person.

Finally, does this one, transcendent, personal God care about His creation? The Deist view is that God created the universe, set the physical laws in motion, wound it up like an old-fashioned clock, set it in its place, and has been either watching it or ignoring it ever since. On a practical level, this view of God is little different from the atheistic view. In contrast, Christianity teaches that God cares about His creation, cares about you and me, desires a relationship with us, and is intimately interested in our lives.

The Bible teaches that God exists (Genesis 1:1 and Hebrews 11:6); that He is unique (Deuteronomy 6:4); the He is transcendent (Isaiah 57:15); that He is a person (Exodus 3:7; Hebrews 6:17); and that He is lovingly involved with His creation (John 3:16). Furthermore, the Bible teaches that we can have a personal relationship with God through His Son, Jesus (John 1:12).

What is Pantheism?

The word "pantheism," like many theological words, comes from the Greek language. Pan means "all" or "everything" and Theos means "god." So, pantheism is the belief that everything somehow is a part of god. Our galaxy, the stars, our solar system, all living things, all thoughts, all people, everything is part of who or what god is. Much of the pantheistic view can be summed up in the statement, "All is god, and god is all." Although a form of the word "Pantheism" was first used in English in 1705, its roots go far back into antiquity. Many current religious and philosophical systems that have their basis in Pantheism include Buddhism, Confucianism, Darwinism, Freemasonry, Hinduism, Occultism, Taoism, and the New Age movement. These are based on three broad types of Pantheism.

Materialistic Pantheism holds that the material universe is all that exists - there is nothing else. Our thoughts, feelings, hopes, dreams, and aspirations are nothing more than biochemical reactions occurring in the cells of the brain, glands, and organs. We are nothing but organic machines. In addition, since nothing but matter exists there was no one or nothing to create this matter. Thus matter must be eternal. "God" is just another name for the material universe. This form of Pantheism has more in common with atheism than with other forms of theism.

Idealistic Pantheism teaches that just as the human soul or mind resides in the human body, the universal soul or mind (i.e. god) resides in the physical universe. God infuses, works through, and expresses the divine essence through the material world. Ultimate reality is found, therefore, not in the material world, but in the spiritual world. Some go so far as to say that the physical world is merely an illusion - either god's or mine - in which I play my part. The sum of all thoughts and feelings is therefore "god."

Neutral Pantheism is like a hybrid of the other two. Both the material and immaterial emanate from a single neutral substance or energy. God is this energy that generates all mind and all matter. God creates physical reality out of this divine substance and then extends spiritual attributes to it from this divine substance. Then, in the end, all things return to god. Therefore, the totality of all thought and all matter is what we call "god."

There are at least two significant problems with Pantheism. First, it cannot account for the existence of the universe. Most scientists today accept that matter, energy, space, and even time (our universe) had a point of beginning. But, if god is just part of the universe or another name for the universe, who or what began god? God could not create himself! Second, since our universe includes beings with personality (you and me for example), the Creator of the universe must have personality also. An effect cannot be greater than its cause.

In contrast to Pantheism, the Bible teaches that God is a Person (Exodus 3:7; Hebrews 6:17), that He created the physical universe (Genesis 1:1; John 1:3), and that He wants to have a relationship with you and me (John 3:16; 1 John 4:10).

ISRAELITES

History of Israel: The Descendants of Abraham

The history of Israel commences with God's covenant with Abraham in approximately 2000 B.C., "I will make you into a great nation" (Genesis 12:2). The name "Israel" (meaning either "one who fights victoriously with God" or "a prevailing prince with God") comes from the new name God gave Abraham's grandson Jacob, after Jacob withstood a spiritual struggle at Jabbok (Genesis 32:28). It is at this point that the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are often referred to as the "Children of Israel."

History of Israel: Its Selection as a Special Nation

The history of Israel goes back even further than 2000 BC. In fact, the selection of Israel as a special nation was part of God's plan from the beginning of time. God's choice of Israel as His "chosen people" did not lie in any special size, nature or attraction. Actually, the nation of Israel was the least in number among all the nations (Deuteronomy 7:6-8). Rather, God chose these people because of His love for them and His unconditional covenant with Abraham. This doesn't mean that God loved Israel more than other people, it was just that He intended to use Israel as His means to love and bless everyone. It was God's plan from the beginning to bring forth the Messiah through Israel to act as the savior for the entire world.

History of Israel: The Biblical Record

The history of Israel as detailed in the Bible encompasses around 1800 years. It proclaims a dynamic account of God's miracles, judgments, promises, and blessings. Israel begins as a unilateral promise to one man, Abraham. For more than 400 years, Abraham and his descendants rely on that promise, even during a significant period of slavery in Egypt. Then, by means of an amazing series of miraculous events, God delivers the Israelites of out Egypt in the Exodus (Hebrew: "a going out"). The Exodus is the occasion that most Jews look to as the foundation of the nation of Israel. The Exodus is the act of deliverance which Israelites dwell on as the demonstration of God's love and protection of Israel. Once the Exodus was completed, God established a conditional covenant with the Israelites at the Mountain of Sinai. It is there that God proclaimed His Law (the Ten Commandments). It is there that God promises blessings for adherence to His Law and curses for noncompliance. The rest of Israel's history as recorded in the Bible is a continuing cycle of blessing and punishment for Israel's obedience and disobedience to God's Law. Throughout times of victory and defeat, king and judges, priests and prophets, restoration and exile - the Israelites are blessed when they obey God and disciplined when they do not. As a nation, Israel was destroyed by the Romans in 70 A.D. At that time, the Jews scattered throughout the whole world, keeping the hope based on prophetic promises of an eventual regathering to the chosen land God gave to Israel. In 1948, after almost 1900 years had passed, Israel was again declared a sovereign nation and officially reestablished in the promised land. Through a series of miraculous events, including the Jews retaking of Jerusalem in 1967, this generation is witnessing the fulfillment of prophecy with respect to God's special nation.

History of Israel: God's Ultimate Purpose

Why is so much of the Bible focused on the history of Israel and the future of its people? Why was one nation called out as "God's chosen people"? These questions are answered when we examine God's ultimate purpose for Israel. When God made His unconditional promise to Abraham that He would make his descendants a great nation, God also promised to bless all people through that nation (Genesis 12:1-3). Therefore, Israel was never considered a sole recipient of God's blessings, but rather, a channel for God's blessings to all mankind. God's miracles for Israel, such as their dramatic deliverance from Egypt, were intended not only for the Israelites themselves, but as evidence of God's absolute power and uniqueness for a watching polytheistic world (Exodus 7:5; 14:18; Joshua 2:9-11). The Messiah that would come through the nation of Israel was always intended to be the Savior for all mankind (Isaiah 49:6). The Old Testament also contains many invitations to the entire world to come and worship the one living God in Israel (Psalm 2:10-12; 117:1).

Based on recent events in the Holy Land, it is clear that God's promise to Abraham is still being fulfilled. Accordingly, God's promise to bless all peoples through Israel is still absolutely apparent. The teaching, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and the growth and influence of His church, were made possible through God's choice of Israel as His people. All people who accept Jesus as their Messiah, whether Jew or Gentile, receive the great blessings of God channeled through His chosen people, the nation of Israel.

What is the history of the state of Israel?

The years between 30-700 C.E. (Christian Era) and 1500 saw significant events within the history of the state of Israel. Christianity split away from Judaism. The Great Jewish Revolt of Israeli history ended with the destruction of the Second Temple and the fall of Jerusalem. The fall of Masada, a separate sect of Jews living within Roman territory, and a failed revolt against Rome left Jerusalem with the Roman name Aelia Capitolina and Jews were forbidden to set foot in Rome during the evangelism of the early Church. The Muslim conquest of Spain alleviated persecution of Jews under Christian rule. The Jewish prayer book (siddur), the Rif (an important work of Jewish law), and complete commentaries written for the Hebrew Bible were published during this period. In the latter part of this era, many countries expelled the Jews causing them to relocate mostly to Poland.

The following timeline of Israeli history ranges from 1501 to 1800 where the first Jewish ghetto is established in Europe, the Ghetto of Venice. King Sigismund I of Poland abolished the law that required Jews to wear special clothes. The Ukrainian Cossack massacred 200,000 Polish gentry and Jewry. Jews were allowed back into England during this time of Israeli history and the Jewish population worldwide was estimated at 1,200,000. By the end of this era, most of the Jews lived in Russia, Prussia, and Austria when the American Revolution gained religious freedom and President George Washington sent a letter to the Jewish community in Rhode Island envisioning a country "which gives bigotry no sanction. . .persecution no assistance." France granted full rights to the Jews and allowed them citizenship while the Pale Settlement for the Jewish population of the Russian controlled Poland was created.

The Golden Age of Yiddish and Hebrew literature ranged from 1801 to 1900, as Hebrew was a revived spoken language. Jews were emancipated in many countries, as they were formally recognized as a culture. Hebrew Colleges were started, while Hebrew men were elected into offices for the first time in democratic governments. The first wave of Jewish immigrants started to build in the homeland of Palestine with Jewish population growth at 7.7 million worldwide. The rise of persecuted Jews began in Russia and the Ukraine.

From 1901 to 1945, Britain defeated the Turks and gained control of the land of Israel in 1917, which many Jews thought meant that all of Palestine was to become a Jewish controlled state. The Pale Settlement in Poland under Russian rule was abolished and Jews received equal rights. The British allowed Arab immigration into the Golan Heights, but Jewish immigration was not allowed. A worldwide Jewish population grew to 15,000,000 with the most in the USA, Poland, Soviet Union, Romania, and Palestine. The British government reversed their support of the Balfour Declaration limiting Jewish immigration to 75,000, when the Holocaust happened from 1939 to 1945.

The post Holocaust history of Israel saw her officially recognized as a state with her own democratic government in 1948. One year after World War II, 250,000 Holocaust survivors made their way to Israel. The Arab countries surrounding the small state made a pact between them to not recognize, negotiate, or make peace with Israel. The wars launched against the new state were the Arab-Israeli war, the Suez war with Egypt, the creation of the P.L.O., the Six-Day war, the Yom Kippur War, the Lebanon war, Intifadas, and Israel was attacked by Saddam Hussein from Iraq with 39 scud missiles in 1990-1991.

Since Israel saw statehood, her intelligence network became the best and most accurate in the world. Israeli teams rescued hostages taken in Entebbe, Uganda. They rescued their people from oppressive nations like Ethiopia, as seen in "Operation Elijah," "Operation Moses," and "Operation Solomon" in 1991, when Israel airlifted the remainder of Ethiopian Jewry to safety. In the last couple of years we have seen fulfillment of prophesy as Israeli scholars extensively searched the genealogies of the tribes of Israel to initiate the offices of the Levite priests and to seat a king out of the lineage of King David.

What is the history of the flag of Israel?

The history of the flag of Israel has its genesis in the Zionist movement. The Zionist movement's goal was to seek the re-establishment of a home in Eretz -- Israel for the Jews. God promised this land to them. At that time, their land was part of the British Mandate on Palestine-Eretz Israel. On November 29, 1947, the British Mandate was officially portioned by the United Nations into Arab and Jewish states. This gave them irrevocable rights to establish their nation. The Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel took place on the 14th May 1948 at the Tel Aviv Museum.

At this important ceremony it was natural that the flag of the Zionist movement was used. This flag was the symbol of the Zionist struggle by Jewish communities around the world. At that time, however, the flag for the State of Israel had not been decided upon.

Not long after, the ad-hoc committee of the Provisional Council of State decided that it would be necessary to have a State flag different from the international Zionist flag.

On the 28th of October 1948, the Flag of the state of Israel was proclaimed. Briefly, it consisted of a white background with two dark sky blue stripes over the whole length of the flag. In the middle of the white background was the star of David -- a symbol long associated with Jewish people though not of uniquely Jewish origin. Thus, the Zionist flag was duly adopted as the flag of the State of Israel.

This short history of the flag of Israel would not be complete without giving some insight into how the Zionist Movement flag had been chosen. It was the first Zionist Congress held in 1897 at Basle, Switzerland. The question of a Zionist flag arose and after some discussion David Wolffsohn informed those gathered that there was a flag already in existence. He displayed the Jewish prayer shawl (tallit).

"The tallit with which we wrap ourselves when we pray: that is our symbol. Let us take this Tallit from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations. So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it. . ." says David Wolffsohn.

Even before the first Zion Congress, there was a blue and white flag flown over the village of the Rishon Lezion in 1885 -- one of the first Zionist settlements. Independently of this, the Bnai Zion Educational Society of Boston had a blue and white flag with a star of David hoisted at the dedication of its meeting hall in 1891.

The history of the flag of Israel embodies the Jews holding fast to one of God promises to them. It was through Israel that the promised Messiah came.

Why Study the History of Israel?

God chose Abraham from all of the peoples that were on the earth at that time because Abraham said he would follow Him. God made a promise to him that said "Leave your country, your people and your father's household, and go to the land I will show you. I will make you into a great nation and I will bless you; I will make your name great, and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse, and all peoples on earth will be blessed through you" (Genesis 12:1-3).

Abraham followed God and received these blessings for himself and his descendants who became the nation of Israel. Even through all of their trials of becoming a nation, God kept His promise.

What is so amazing is that though God doesn't change, neither do we. We can look at the history of Israel and see where they made the same mistakes we make today. Circumstances may be different, but the problems are certainly the same. But God leads us to repentance for the sins we have made and forgives us. He loves us and He says 'He will never leave us or forsake us.' That was true in the time of Abraham and it's true in our time today. You see, it's up to us. We have the freedom of choice to follow God or to reject Him. We have the freedom not to sin or the freedom to sin. The only choice you don't have are the consequences.

Why study the history of Israel? So that we can learn from their mistakes as well as ours and know that God's promises are for today, not just for yesterday. It also leads us to a better understanding of the current events in the Middle East. History usually defines the future. God's plans are for tomorrow, for eternal life, and this world is just a shadow of the world to come.

GREEKS

Greek Gods - The Historical Background

Greek gods are an integral part of Greek mythology. Our formal knowledge of the ancient Greek gods can be traced back to the writings of Homer in the Iliad and the Odyssey (8th century BC). In addition, many scholars believe that the myths were heavily influenced by the Mycenaean culture that existed in Greece between 1700 and 1100 BC. Remarkably, there is evidence that the beginnings of Greek mythology can be traced back to the ancient Middle Eastern cultures of Mesopotamia and Anatolia. There are many similarities between the mythology of these ancient Middle Eastern cultures and the ancient Greeks.

Greek Gods - The Religious & Social Background

The Greek gods were created by man to explain the world around them, act as a means of exploration, provide legitimacy and authority to ancient Greek aristocracy, and provide entertainment for the masses. The religion of the ancient Greeks did not have a single source of written scripture such as the Bible or the Qur'an. Furthermore, the ancient Greeks did not believe in absolute truth as practiced by modern faiths such as Christianity and Judaism. Generally, a Greek city-state would devote itself to a particular god or a set of gods, and depending on the location of the city-state, the characteristics of the gods could vary widely. Many city-states erected temples to their particular gods, and these gods were honored in festivals and animal sacrifices. The ancient Greek gods normally took on human form and lived in a society similar to human society. They exhibited all the emotions of human beings and frequently intervened in human history. The most significant difference between the Greek gods and humans was that the gods were immortal and human beings were not.

Greek Gods - The Creation Myths

It is difficult to trace the ancestry of the ancient Greek gods since there are several creation myths. A combination of the account put together by the Greek Poet Hesiod in the 8th century BC and an account written by the mythographer (compiler of myths) Apollodrous would have been recognized by most ancient Greeks. It was as follows: The god Chaos (gaping void) was the foundation of all creation. Out of this god arose Gaea (earth), Tartarus (underworld) and Eros (love). The god Eros was necessary to draw Chaos and Gaea together so that they would produce offspring. Chaos then created night and the first born of Gaea was Uranus (god of the heavens). The union of Chaos and Gaea also resulted in the creation of the mountains, seas, and gods known as Titans. The interaction of these early gods resulted in the creation of several other gods. These included well-known figures such as Aphrodite, Hades, Poseidon and Zeus.

Zeus eventually waged war on his father (Cronus) and the Titans. As a result of this conflict, Zeus established a new regime on Mt. Olympus. Zeus ruled the sky, his bother Poseidon ruled the seas, and his brother Hades ruled the underworld. The creation of human beings is the result of conflicting myths. Many creation stories held that human beings sprang directly from the ground. In some cases, separate Greek societies had their own unique creation events. This is true for the Arcadians and Thebans, which both trace their beginnings to different earth-born men created in different areas. One myth states that humans were created out of earth and water, aided by the Titan, Prometheus, with his gift of fire.

Greek Gods - The Great Flood

The ancient Greeks believed in a flood that destroyed all mankind similar to the account described in the Bible. In the Greek myth, the flood took place during the age of Deucalion 1 (1450 BC). Deucalion 1 and his wife, Pyrrah 1, were warned in advance of the coming deluge and told to construct a chest and fill it with provisions. The source of the coming deluge was the anger of Zeus towards mankind. Zeus had become disgusted at the degeneration of humans, and in particular, the practice of human sacrifice. Zeus assembled the gods and decided to wipe out mankind by water. Deucalion and Pyrrah survived the flood by floating in the chest they built. They floated in the chest for nine days and nine nights and came to rest on a mountain in Phocis. Once Zeus realized that the world was a stagnant pool of water survived only by Deucalion and Pyrrah, he stopped the rains and restored the land.

In order to repopulate the world, the gods instructed the survivors to cast stones over their heads. The stones cast by Deucalion became men and the stones cast by Pyrrah became women. This recreation by stone was used to explain the hardness of the human race. There are a great number of differences between the Greek myth and the account of the flood described in the Bible. For example, there is evidence that the biblical flood took place closer to 2500 BC. Furthermore, unlike the Greek myth, Noah and his family were saved along with sufficient animal life to repopulate the planet. However, both accounts maintain that the world was destroyed as the result of mankind's sin, and the human race was saved as a result of a few individuals leading a righteous life.

Greek Gods - Life after Death

The Greek gods represented the ancient Greek belief that when an individual died, his vital breath or psyche left the body to enter the palace of Hades (king of the dead). In the earlier periods of ancient Greece, the psyche was not the same as the Christian view of a soul. Once it left the body, the psyche was a phantom image that could be perceived, but not touched. The wall separating the living from the dead was impenetrable. Gradually, the concept of the psyche became similar to the concept of a soul. The soul was separate from the body, but responsible for an individual's personality. The soul was also responsible for an individual's moral decisions.
The early Greeks did not believe that a person's action in this life had any bearing on their afterlife. However, by "Classical Times" (480-323 BC), the belief that a moral person would be rewarded in the afterlife was prevalent. At the same time, the idea that a person who repeatedly transgressed deserved eternal punishment developed. The concern of how one spent their afterlife led to many burial rituals and commemorative ceremonies for the dead.

Greek Gods - The Lasting Effects

The Greek gods continue to impact modern society, and the lasting effects of ancient Greek civilization cannot be exaggerated. In fact, most of Western civilization can trace its origins to ancient Greece. When the Roman Empire conquered the Greeks they inherited an extensive empire. The Romans also adopted the beliefs of the Greeks and Greek mythology became the official religion of the Roman Empire. This lasted for centuries, until the Roman emperor Constantine adopted Christianity as the official religion of the Rome in 312 AD.

Although there are no modern formal religions that worship the ancient Greek gods, their legacy continues throughout the entire world. In particular, the arts have been greatly influenced by Greek mythology. Many well-known masterpieces in painting, music, literature and theater use themes from Greek mythology. Today, the influence of Greek mythology and the ancient Greek gods shows no sign of diminishing. Computer games frequently use stories of the ancient Greek gods as a backdrop for their quest orientated games. Motion pictures that utilize characters from Greek mythology are still popular. It seems that the moral and intellectual themes of the stories behind the ancient Greek gods have proven easily adaptable to many cultures over many centuries. It shows mankind's inherent need to explore origins, meaning and morality - it shows man's need to explain why he is here and where he is going.

Were the ancient Greek gods and goddesses based on real people?

Ancient Greek gods and goddesses are mythical. Interestingly, the ancient Greek gods and goddesses have no definite foundation, which makes them even more fantasy than might have been previously imagined. These humanly formed men and women, who just as readily took the shape and size of more alien or monster beings, were not based on hero humans. Almost an equal number of sources from historians conclude that the Greeks imagined the existence as based it upon real natives.

For those who believe there is basis for the ancient superheroes, the Greek gods and goddesses descended from human parents into a body that was incredibly capable for god-ish acts. Basically, they were machos born to a non-macho. For those who believe the gods were imagined, these mythical forms either always existed or else appeared out of the sky without warning. With both cases, there were relations between the beings similar to a human family, with husbands and wives, children and siblings, though acts of polygamy and adultery run rampant.

Chaos, for example, created all and gave birth to Gaea, who governed the underworld, while Uranus, overseer of mountains, the sea and all other gods and goddesses, had some sort of intimate relationship with Gaea and brought Cyclopes, ruler of the thunderbolts, into the world. Gaea also parented Tartarus and Eros, who, as well, had their own branch of government.

Regardless of the origin, however, whether by eternal existence or human birth, these ancient Greek gods and goddesses' lives were sometimes, by some Greeks, considered to be allegorical and always regarded as holy beings. They were looked up to-pardon the pun-by their followers as an example for life and interacting with fellow humans. The boldness, bravery, justice, peace, or anger they exhibited in a situation, be they on a mission to bring death to a violator or joy to a burdened soul, was seen as the standard to be emulated.

The ancient Greek gods and goddesses have always and will always have diversified meaning. To some they were and still are the source of religious ceremony and tribute, worship and joy while to others they will continue to be a mere superstitious myth that can be researched and imaginatively pursued for personal enjoyment. In either case, still no solid basis for origin exists and yet, through the ages and centuries, this seems to make little difference.

ROMANS

Roman Gods - Early Pantheism

Roman gods originated in the ancient "village" of Rome as the faceless and formless deities that supported farmers in their efforts with the land. The large number of Roman gods can most likely be explained by the pantheistic belief of "numen," which holds that gods and spirits inhabit places, objects and living things. The early Romans believed that everything in nature was inhabited by numina.

Even though the early Romans placed little importance on the personalities of their gods, they did care about their functions. The early Romans integrated their worship of gods into all aspects of their personal and public lives. Nothing better exhibits the extent of this worship in every day life as in the household cult of the Dii Familiaris. In this system, every family had a guardian spirit known as the Lar Familiaris. This spirit was honored at all family functions, including sacrifices at funerals. The creative force that engenders an individual and allows him or her to grow, learn and act morally was known as the Genius for men and the Luna for women. This spirit stayed with an individual until death. The worship of Roman gods in Dii Familiaris went as far as to assign a protector spirit to different areas of the house. For instance, Forculus protects the door, Limentinus the threshold, Cardea the hinges, and Vesta the hearth.

Roman Gods - Later Expansion

Roman gods began taking on the forms that we would recognize today during the dynasty of the Etruscan kings that ruled the city of Rome in the 6th century BC. During this period, the Romans adapted a group of three Etruscan gods as the focus of state worship. These gods were worshiped at the grand temple on the Capitoline Hill, and, as such, became known as the Capitoline triad. The triad consisted of Jupiter (Zeus), Juno (Hera), and Minerva (Athena). Once the rule of the Etruscan dynasty ended in 509 BC, Rome became a republic. The Roman Republic was ruled by two chief magistrates, each of whom was elected to a one-year term. During this period, the Capitoline temple became the focus of public worship.

As Rome's power grew and its sphere of influence expanded, the Roman Empire encountered the older and richer religious beliefs of the Greeks. The Romans also came into contact with the beliefs of other eastern Mediterranean Sea cultures. As a result, Romans began to adopt various foreign gods and religious customs. In many cases, gods and heroes from foreign cultures were given temples in Rome. The acceptance of Greek gods had the biggest influence on Roman religion. The earliest Greek gods adopted by the Romans were Castor and Polydeuces in 484 BC. Later in the 5th century BC, the Greek god Apollo was introduced. Apollo would eventually symbolize Roman virtue and austerity. Other Roman gods that took on Greek characteristics included Diana (Artemis), Mercury (Hermes), Neptune (Poseidon), Venus (Aphrodite), and Vulcan (Hephaestus).

As Rome continued to expand its political and geographic influence, Rome continued to assimilate a wider variety of religious beliefs and customs. In some cases, the assimilation of a foreign god was done to fit a particular role in Rome's expansion. This was the case for the goddess Cybele, whose worship was the direct result of the threat that Hannibal posed towards Rome. Even though Hannibal was eventually defeated, the worship of Cybele continued. The Romans also began to assimilate the belief in savior-gods from so called "mystery" religions. One of these was the Persian religion of Mithrasism. The Persian god Mithra (god of light and wisdom) offered salvation through the belief in an immortal soul. These religions became popular since they offered a greater sense of community than strict pantheism.

Roman Gods - Divine Emperors

The nature of Roman gods expanded again as the Roman Empire came into contact with the belief of divine kingship. At first, the Romans rejected the idea that a human ruler should be worshiped as a god. In 44 BC, Julius Caesar permitted a statue of himself with the inscription, "The unvanquished god," and declared himself dictator for life. That same year, Julius Caesar was killed by citizens who wanted to see Rome return to its earlier republican ideas. Caesar's heir, Octavian (Augustus), made himself the first emperor of Rome. However, he avoided any claim to being divine. In fact, the notion that the emperor was divine was ridiculed throughout much of the 1st century AD.

However, as the government of the Roman Empire became more autocratic and gave rulers almost unlimited power, emperors eventually accepted divine honors. This belief in the emperor's divine authority eventually led to the requirement of a sacrifice to the emperor as a sign of loyalty. The requirement of a sacrifice to the emperor became a significant source of conflict with early Christians. Christians refused to worship the emperor as god, and therefore, would not sacrifice to him. This led to persecution of the Christians by the Roman political authorities that enforced the practice. The period of worshiping Roman emperors as gods continued until the 4th century AD, when Emperor Constantine the Great became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. In 392 AD, Emperor Theodosius I banned the practice of pagan religions in Rome altogether.

Were the ancient Roman gods and goddesses based on real people?

No, the ancient Roman gods and goddesses were not based on real people. Rather, they were based on the mythology of ancient Greece. The Romans adopted many of the Greek gods and goddesses and renamed them. For example, Jupiter, the father of the ancient Roman gods and goddesses is the Greek god, Zeus. His wife, Juno, the queen of heaven, is the Greek goddesses Hera.

Other similarities between the ancient Roman gods and goddesses and their Greek counterparts include:

Hermes (Greek)/Mercury (Roman) - the messenger god and god of science, travelers and

rogues

Ares (Greek)/Mars (Roman) - the god of war

Aphrodite (Greek)/Venus (Roman) - the goddess of love

There are many other ancient Roman gods and goddesses which have ancient Greek counterparts. The Iliad, the Aeneid, and the Odyssey, ancient epic poetry, provide us with some of the information we have on ancient Roman and Greek gods and goddesses as well as their mythical heroes like Hercules. Other sources of information were found in the ruins of the ancient Roman and Greek temples where people gathered to worship these ancient Roman gods and goddesses.

Did the ancient Romans believe in an afterlife?

Yes, the ancient Romans did believe in an afterlife. They believed in the immortality of the soul and had a complicated belief system about life after death. The ancient Romans believed that when one died, one was met by Mercury, the messenger god and son of Jupiter and taken to the river Styx, that flowed nine times around the underworld. There they paid the ferryman, Charon, a fee to cross the river where they were met and judged by Minos, Aenaeus, and Rhadymanthas.

However, the ancient Romans did not believe in eternal damnation. Therefore, after one was judged he was sent either to the Fields of Elysium, if one was a warrior or other type of hero, or to the Plain of Asphodel, if one was an ordinary citizen. However, if one was judged to have committed a crime against society, one would have been sent to Tartarus to be tortured by the Furies until such time as one's debt to society was deemed to have been paid in full. At that time, one was released. All three areas of the underworld were ruled over by Pluto, brother of Jupiter.

In order to prepare the deceased for the afterlife, the ancient Romans buried their loved ones with a variety of artifacts. Of most importance was the inclusion of a coin on the body with which the soul would pay Charon, the ferryman, for passage across the river Styx. Other objects entombed with the deceased could include food, cosmetics, and jewelry. The sarcophagus was usually decorated with images of the deceased. The ancient Romans believed that it was very important that their loved ones have a proper burial for if they did not they would be denied entrance into the underworld and spend eternity in a purgatory-like existence.

EGYPTIANS

Was religion a major part of everyday life in ancient Egypt?

To ancient Egyptians, the term "religion" as we think of it did not exist. Worship was the primary focus of everyday life, and was characterized by three main aspects:

Animistic: the belief that gods were representative of natural forces such as floods, the moon, and the sun.

Anthropomorphic: gods took on human-like characteristics when they visited earth; some were represented with animal heads and human bodies.

Polytheistic: they believed in more than one god or goddess. The Egyptian gods were very sacred and plentiful. The Egyptians worshiped at least eighty different gods.

The worship of their gods and goddesses was part of everyday life in ancient Egypt. The ancient Egyptians interpreted every occurrence in terms of the relationship between natural and supernatural forces. They believed in life after death, which they termed the "afterlife." They had to obey their gods because after their death, the gods would judge them according to how well their commands were obeyed. The Egyptian people thought that the afterlife was similar to life on earth, only better. They thought that the spirits of the dead could eat, drink, and move around after death, and their spirit only needed a body to live in. That is why mummies were an integral part of the religious ritual in ancient Egypt.

The first attempt to establish a monotheistic doctrine (the belief that there is only one God) was when Akenaton (XVIII Dynasty) installed "Aten," who no one was able to see as the sole universal god and to facilitate the shift, he eliminated all the traditional deities. This god was not unknown to the Egyptians people, as it originally represented the light and heat of the sun. The name Aten appears frequently in the old texts, and was used in expressions most commonly referring to the universe. The new canon did not last long though. After the King's death there was a swift return to the status quo.

There was a proliferation of temples which indicates how essential they were to the function of everyday life in ancient Egypt and the religious function was not the whole story. Often one temple was built so close to another that whole temple complexes, even temple cities arose, cities like Giza, or Thebes. The sheer size of these complexes hints at the amount of activity that went on inside their walls.

In serving the gods, the priests were acting on behalf of the king whose decisions implemented the will of the gods on earth. This is why in every period of Egyptian history we find temple-wall reliefs forever repeating the motif of a king standing face-to-face with one god or other while he makes an offering. Being himself a "living god," the image of the King is drawn on the same scale as the supernatural being in front of him, with whom he is essentially on a par. In view of the great number of deities and temples, the King could not cope with all the duties ensuing from his privileged status, so he entrusted them on to the priests who every day performed religious rites on his behalf throughout the realm.

Before a priest could enter the innermost parts of the temple, where the god resided, a complex purification process was necessary. This was not a cleansing as we know it in Christianity, a spiritual act involving the avoidance and forgiveness of sins, but rather a sequence of physical operations. In order to be ritually pure, their clothes had to be woven from clean, fine linen thread and cut to a conservative style. Their clothing distinguished the priests from the rest of the population. The Egyptian laypersons did not have access to the gods in the temples or shrines. In contrast to Christian practice, laymen could only enter the forecourt of an Egyptian temple, the inner parts being reserved for the priesthood. The common people could only approach the gods in the national festivals.

After complying with all the requirements of purification, a priest still had to undergo a prescribed ritual ablution before he entered the inner sanctum. On the inside, and along the outside walls of the large temples was a sizeable stone pool with a long set of steps leading down to the water. Once at the pool, the priest could use the water to sprinkle and cleanse himself. As well as being clean in body, the priests were supposed to abide by a strict code of ethics. They were never to enter a temple in a state of sin or impurity. They were warned to lay no false charges, be not desirous of profit, accept no bribes, spurn not the lowly in favor of the mighty, use no false measure or weight, and tell no "gossip" about the rites they performed. These were the secrets, the privacy clauses, idiosyncratic to the temple.

So the answer to the question is yes! Religion was a major part of everyday life in ancient Egypt, but not in the way "we" identify with religion.

Egyptian Gods and Goddesses: Pre-dynastic History

Egyptian gods represent over 50 separate deities, most of which date back to pre-dynastic times. The ancient tribes that made up the region worshiped their own particular gods, which were normally embodied by an animal. As Egyptian civilization advanced, the deities took on human characteristics. In many cases, the gods were depicted with human bodies, while retaining animal heads. By the beginning of the Old Kingdom Dynasty (3100 BC), a national religion developed out of the primitive tribal and local religions. However, ongoing changes in political power resulted in the changing status of Egyptian gods. Generally, as different cities or regions became politically dominant, their particular god also became dominant.

Egyptian Gods and Goddesses: The Creation Myths

Many Egyptian gods find their origin in several of the Egyptian creation myths. These myths attempted to explain the Egyptians' place in the cosmos based on the observation of natural processes. This was particularly true for the flooding of the Nile. The flooding of the Nile was critical for Egyptian civilization. As a result, gods identified with nature became prevalent in the Egyptian creation myths. Some of the most common creation myths refer to Nu or Nun, describing the churning sea of chaos that existed before creation. Out of this chaos rose the egyptian sun god Ra. Ra then created deities that were both male and female. In turn, these deities gave birth to more deities, and the newly created deities were responsible for the creation of the physical world. Ra was also responsible for the creation of mankind. One creation myth refers to mankind being created from the tears of Ra.

Egyptian Gods and Goddesses: Life After Death

The Egyptian gods were closely tied to the Egyptians' strong belief in life after death. The dead were provided food, drink, weapons and other necessities. Family members often visited the tombs with ongoing gifts. The proper care for the dead was required to ensure eternal life. The Egyptian view of life after death had several different concepts, the most important of which was referred to as "ba" -- loosely compared to the existence of an individual's soul. The concept of "ba" resulted in the physical manifestation of an individual after death. This manifestation usually took the form of a bird. In that way, the individual became part of the perennial life of nature.

Egyptian Gods and Goddesses: Brush With Monotheism

Ancient Egyptian religion was an ever-changing mishmash of several Egyptian gods and tribal and regional traditions. As a result, there were several conflicting beliefs. There was no one set of unified teachings such as the Bible. The king (pharaoh) was entrusted to determine the will of the gods. Over time, these conflicts were reconciled and a trend towards monotheism developed. This trend reached its zenith during the reign of Amenhoteb IV when he established Aten as the only universal god. This concept went against thousands of years of Egyptian religious tradition. The one god concept ended soon after the death of one of his successors, Akhenaten.

The worship of multiple gods was fully reinstated during the reign of a boy king named Tutankhaten (Tut). (Ironically, the discovery of King Tut's tomb became one of the greatest archeological finds in history.) There is little in ancient Egyptian religious beliefs that can be directly compared to present day religions such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam. However, the concepts of divine creation and life after death are at least common themes. A prevailing thought is that Egyptian gods, like all gods and religious belief systems, developed as a result of mankind attempting to explain the physical world. Another thought is that all humans are born with the innate understanding of the existence of a sovereign Creator, and that many ancient religions sprouted as a result of this universal truth.

Who did the people of ancient Egypt worship?

The belief system of the people of ancient Egypt from the 4th millennium to the first centuries AD included polytheism. Their gods held both human and animal form, as pharaohs promoted their preferred worship. All the pharaohs were preoccupied with the afterlife, as evident in the surviving tombs and pyramids. People paid large sums to be buried near the king hoping to gain passage into the netherworld, while all used passwords with spells from the "Book of the Dead."

The pyramids date from the Old Kingdom era of Egypt's history. The cult of Osiris flourished in the Middle Kingdom era, as the Exodus of the Jews constitutes the New Kingdom era. The myth starts out that Osiris was slain, his body torn apart and flung all over Egypt. Isis and Nephthys found the pieces of his body, giving new life to Osiris, who became the ruler of the underworld. The Book of Exodus in the Bible's Old Testament tells of Moses being born in Egypt to Hebrew parents, who set him afloat on the Nile in a reed basket saving him from laws that required all newborn Hebrew males to be executed. The pharaoh's daughter found the child while bathing in the Nile and reared Moses as her adopted son. Moses learned of his heritage, forsook the royal upbringing, and chose the sufferings of his people, instead. He led God's people out of Egypt's oppressive slavery.

The people of ancient Egypt worshipped their gods of astrology. Apis (Taurus) was revised from the Hebrew prophecy of the coming Messiah, portrayed as a bull rushing forth with might energy, fierce wrath, and horns pushing back his enemies and destroying them. The Egyptian Zodiac of Denderah corrupts this Hebrew prophecy calling the bull, Apis. After an Apis bull died, it was buried with pompous ritual and its calf was its successor. Apis' priest used divination practices, as they saw omens from the bull's behavior. The Judeo meaning of the ram is one of redeeming qualities. It is a living lamb showing the foundation upon which the victory of atonement rests. The Zodiac of Denderah changed it to the rescuing of Phrixus out of Thessaly to Colchis. Phrixus sacrificed the ram to Zeus, who placed the ram in the heavens as a constellation.

To worshippers of ancient Egyptian religion, the soul consists of two entities: one survives death yet remains near the body, while the other goes into the realm of the dead. Ancient Egyptian worshippers offered up millions of sacrificed ibis and baboons to the moon god, Thoth. Children were sacrificed to the god, Moloch, usually in times of great distress attempting to appease the character of this god. Laws given to Moses by God after the Exodus forbade the Israelites from participating in this worship. Much of the practices of modern day Satanism can be traced back to the ancient Egyptian religion. Imohotep was an Egyptian magus, who was worshipped as the god of medicine. Egyptologists regard that the whole "Book of the Dead," with two hundred chapters of curses, and possible medicinal cures reside in Imohotep's tomb, which has yet to be found. This is causing a major stir within the Egyptian society to unearth Imohotep's tomb, firing a renewed interest and practice in worship of the ancient Egyptian religion.

AZTECS

Aztec gods – The role of Religion

Aztec gods and goddesses are numerous. There was a god for almost every purpose and aspect of life in the Aztec culture. Religion was a very important part of the civilization and it was woven into their daily practices, beliefs, ceremonies, and dress. Many sources list more than a hundred different gods or goddesses, while others list dozens more.

Aztec gods – The role of gods

Aztec rulers were considered to be the embodiment of their gods and were thought to know the disposition and will of the Aztec gods. Among the many, their three main gods were Huitzilopochtli, Tlaloc, and Tezcatlipoca. Huitzilopochtli, as with others, could only be appeased by the blood of human sacrifice. His great temple was on atop the pyramid in Tenochtitlan.

Victims (many captured in battle) were beheaded and the heads were displayed as trophies on what is called a great rack or wall. Others sacrificed thought it a great honor and volunteered. It is thought that more than 20,000 were ritualistically killed in a 4 day celebration of the temple’s completion.

Other gods and goddesses include:

Atlacoya -- goddess of drought

Chiconahui – a domestic fertility goddess

Citlalicue – a creator of the stars

Cipactonal – god of astrology, sorcery (witchcraft)

Oxomoco – goddess of astrology

Xochiquezal – goddess of female sexuality, prostitutes, pleasure

Patecatl – god of healing and creator of peyote (a hallucinogenic)

Tezcatlipoca was the god of darkness, deceit, and sorcery. Much of the Aztec beliefs and religion were centered on the dark side. Their pagan practices led them into what are actually satanic rituals and customs.

Aztec gods – The comparison

Unlike the God of Judaism and Christianity, who is a God of love, grace and redemption, many Aztec gods were about brutal violence and war. Also in contrast to Aztec gods, the Christian God created all things and saw the need for a one-time only sacrifice.

Because all have sinned (through original sin in the Garden of Eden), God came to earth in the human form of His Son, Jesus Christ. He was the sacrificial Lamb, atoning for the sins of the whole human race. Through His sacrifice, we all are offered this free gift if we turn away from our dark pagan ways; we can reap the promise of spending eternity with the sole deity who created and controls all that the Aztecs thought their gods did.

What do we know about the Aztec capitol Tenochtitlan?

Tenochtitlan was the capitol city built by the Aztecs in the middle of Lake Texcoco. They migrated to and settled in the Valley of Mexico. They believed they were the chosen people and led to the area by the god Huitzilopochtli. The Mexicas (or Aztecs) built their empire on what is now the Federal District in central Mexico and is the center of today’s Mexico City. During its peak, Tenochtitlan was once inhabited with well over 200,000 people, being one of the largest cities in the world at that time.

In the early fourteenth century, the Aztecs built Tenochtitlan (as directed by Huitzilopochtli) and the great temple to honor him on what are called Chinampas. These were man-made islands built up with rich dark mud from the lake, then rooted with many plants and trees. The soil was then retained with wooden posts and timbers that held it in place until the soil became established. It was a swampy land but through Aztec ingenuity, it became very prosperous for growing life-sustaining crops and floating gardens. They built the great temple from stone or rock around the year 1418. It is said to have had the second largest public square in the world during the reign of Montezuma I, sporting several temples and palaces.

Their empire grew and produced many great warriors who ventured out to conquer other kingdoms, obtaining both territory and prisoners. These human trophies were often used as sacrifices to appease the many gods of the Aztec. This was common practice when Cortes and his Spanish troops arrived. After years of war with the conquistadors, the Aztecs were conquered (in 1521), and Cortes vowed to erect the Cathedral where the temples once stood. Eventually, Mexico City was built on top of the ruins of the once mighty Aztec capitol.

Excavations began in 1978 when workers uncovered a large stone disc that had marked the stairway up to the great Temple of Tenochtitlan. The stone was reported to weigh an amazing 8 tons. Some of the ruins that have been discovered are a result of a metro line project that began in the 1970s. A section has been opened as a visitors’ center in Mexico City’s Zocalo (Plaza). Much of what has been found remarkably corresponds to today’s current city streets.

Who was the Aztec god Tezcatlipoca?

According to Aztec mythology, Tezcatlipoca (tes-cat-lee-poh-ka) was considered the god of magic and darkness. He was labeled the god of the nocturnal sky, temptation, sorcery, and war. In addition, he was known by several other names with meanings like Sower of Discord, Night, Wind, and He by whom we live.

The Aztecs believed he was a god of discord and deceit, often inciting riots and wars between peoples. He carried an obsidian smoking mirror to bewilder Aztec enemies, then leading them on a path to evil. It is told that his mirror gave off a smoke that could kill his enemies (bad people) or sometimes punish them with results of illness and poverty. On the flip side, this allowed the good people rewards of wealth and fame. The Aztecs said that at one’s birth, Tezcatlipoca determined and prophesied which destiny they would receive. It was also believed this god decided a child’s physical looks.

Tezcatlipoca was a strange looking being himself. He is shown with very black hair, and usually drawn or painted with a large black or black and yellow stripe across his face. He carried four arrows (signifying the four directions) for the punishment of man’s sins, a shield, and battle weapon, and wore twenty gold bells around his ankles. On his right foot he wore the hoof of a deer representing his great speed and agility. However, one myth claims Tezcatlipoca, along with his twin brother Quetzalcoatl, created the earth. In this myth of creation, it is said that he lost one of his feet to a sea creature; so many representations show him with only one foot. He is most often shown with much black while his twin is called the White Tezcatlipoca.

Tezcatlipoca was an all-important god to the Aztec people. One of his most revered attributes was the ability to shape-shift, usually into a jaguar. In celebration of this god, the Aztec held a feast each year to honor Tezcatlipoca during which a specially chosen young man would climb the stairs of the temple and then be sacrificed by the priest. To be chosen for such a task was considered to be a great honor.

Today a turquoise mask representing Tezcatlipoca can be seen in the British Museum. It is made of obsidian and greenstone mosaic on a human skull. It is believed to date between 1400 AD and 1521 AD. It reportedly came from Mexico and was donated to the museum by Henry Christy in the 1860s.

Who was Tlaloc?

The Aztec god Tlaloc was believed to be the god of rain, fertility, and lightning. He was one of the three main gods of the Aztec’s being Tlaloc, Huitzilopochtli, and Quetzalcoatl. Tlaloc was considered a beneficent god but was also greatly feared for he could cause floods, drought, or fling lightening throughout the land. He could send torrential rains, hurricanes, and instigate hunger with his powers if he was angry. Tlaloc was also sometimes called Nahuatl (meaning one who makes things sprout). He is often shown with very large bulging eyes, long fangs, and wearing a net of clouds. Tlaloc wears a headdress of heron feathers, carries rattles used to make the thunder, and sports foam sandals.

To appease this god, the Aztec people would offer up human sacrifices; in Tlaloc’s case it was usually children. The priest would however, would collect the tears of these young terrified victims as an additional offering. He would sometimes make them cry more through tortures like pulling out their nails. The tears were seen as rain, so the more they cried the better the season of rainfall. Parents saw the sacrifice of their children as an honor; other children were those taken captive from outside villages. Whichever the case, the important thing was to keep Tlaloc happy. By doing so, they believed they were provided the rains to produce healthy crops. Anyone who died from drowning, dropsy, lightning or anything else associated with water was thought to pass on to a place called Tlacocan, the paradise of fertility in the tallest mountain where Tlaloc lived and clouds were formed.

Great importance was given to the direction of the rains sent by Tlaloc.

Western rain was red from the setting sun and represented autumn.

Southern rain represented the green fertility of summer and growth

Eastern rain was golden, nourishing the crops of Spring and promising life.

Northern rain contained hail and thunder bringing the warnings of destruction. Snow and hail

storms were believed to contain and represent the bones of the dead.

The Aztec’s so honored this god that they built a temple for him in Tenochtitlan next to the great temple for the god Huitzilopochtli. They created an image of Tlaloc adorned with a string of green beads called chalchihuitl (jade). On this idol, he wore bracelets of precious gems and gold. It is said there were no other idols decorated with as many jewels in this entire Mexican region. In fact, there is a large stone idol or statue of Tlaloc that stands today outside of the National Museum of Anthropology and History in Mexico City.

Who was Huitzilopochtli?

Huitzilopochtli (or "hummingbird") was the chief god of the Aztecs and was called their god of war. According to legend, it was Huitzilopochtli that urged them to leave their original homeland and led them to the Mexico Valley region. It is believed that when they left the area of what is now the southwestern U.S., they nomadically migrated south and reached the region where they built the city of Tenochtitlan. On this site, they made and artificial island that now stands in the center of today’s Mexico City.

When they first arrived in the area, they saw an eagle perched on top a cactus, eating a snake. This sighting fulfilled a prophecy indicating that this is where they should stay. It was a sign from the god Huitzilopochtli. The famous vision is still depicted on the national seal of Mexico.

Huitzilopochtli was a fierce god who used the "serpent of fire" (the sun’s rays), to destroy his enemy siblings, the moon and stars. So as the battles of day and night continued, the Mexica (Aztec people) recognized his victories over darkness with each new sunrise. However, to keep this warring god appeased in their behalf, they had to continually feed his insatiable appetite for the hearts of human sacrifices. This was believed to sustain him for each new day’s battle.

The Mexica built a great temple on the Pyramid in Tenochtitlan in his honor. At its completion ceremonies, it is said that more than 20,000 human sacrifices were offered in a four day celebration. The victim’s heads were strung as trophies on the ‘great rack’ (called Tzompantli) in the village below the temple.

As he was the most elevated and celebrated of all Aztec gods, Huitzilopochtli was deified in every aspect of their daily lives. An image was carved of wood, portraying Huitzilopochtli with a blue forehead and a gold headdress shaped like the long narrow beak of a hummingbird. The headdress was decorated with long beautiful feathers of green. He carried four arrows and a serpent -- like blue staff. The entire image was covered with jewels of jade, turquoise, and gold, while his wrist and feet were adorned with countless gold bracelets. His face was painted with blue stripes and his hair was made of eagle feathers.

The legend of Huitzilopochtli tells the story of his mother being shamefully impregnated with him by a ball of feathers. This is why his siblings were determined to kill their pregnant mother; instead, the story says Huitzilopochtli was born full-grown and came out fighting. He was born to battle and became revered as the national god of the Aztecs. He was a god of war, the sun god, the god of death, and a fearsome guide for all journeys of the Mexicans.

BABYLONIANS

What is the history of Babylon?

The ancient city of Babylon, located in southern Mesopotamia, was situated on the Euphrates River about 50 miles south of modern Baghdad. Babylon’s great wealth and power were considered mythical until archeologists discovered many of its riches during the 19th century.

The name Babylon means "The Gate of God(s)," and was the capital of the land of Babylonia. Nimrod, a descendant of Noah, established the city and a common religion. It was here where the Tower of Babel was located and where God confused the speech of the builders. No wonder Babylon became a biblical symbol of the confusion that can be caused by godlessness.

The earliest inhabitants were the Sumerians whom the Bible refers to as the people of the "land of Shinar." Sargon, who was from one of the Sumerian cities, united the people of Babylonia under his rule about 2300 BC. It is believed that Nimrod and Sargon were one in the same person.

Sumerian culture was the basis of the high level of civilization of Babylonia. A system of gods was established, with a temple in each city of the land. The temple-centered culture often held huge festivals; many different types of priests lead the people in worship, especially the exorcist and the diviner who were trained to drive away evil spirits. Literature was dominated by mythology and legends, including a creation story and a flood story, which glorified the gods of Babylon.

In 2000 BC, Hammurabi became ruler of Babylonia. According to the Bible, Abraham left Ur (an ancient city of lower Babylon) during Hammurabi’s reign and moved to Haran. He established its laws into a written system, known as the Code of Hammurabi, and expanded the borders of the Empire. The histories of Babylonia and the land of Assyria, located to the north, developed alongside each other. The Assyrians conquered Babylonia around 1270 BC, and Babylonia became a lesser power as the Assyrians dominated the ancient world.

However, a leader by the name of Nabopolassar won Babylonian independence from Assyria around 626 BC, and under his leadership, Babylonia became the dominant power in the area. In 605 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II, the son of Nabopolassar, became ruler and reigned for 44 years. He built Babylon into one of the leading cities of the world by using treasures stolen from other nations.

In 587 BC, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and took the leading citizens of the Kingdom of Judah prisoner. The prophet Jeremiah told how the captivity would last 70 years. During this 70-year period of captivity, the Persians conquered Babylonia. The Jews were free to return to their land, while Babylon remained a province of the Persian Empire for the next nine centuries.

Recently, Saddam Hussein rebuilt the city on top of old ruins with his name inscribed on many of the bricks in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. When the Operation Desert Storm ended, he began to build a modern palace over some old ruins, naming it Saddam Hill. Since Saddam’s overthrow, it has been rumored that there are plans in the near future for restoring Babylon as a cultural center complete with shopping malls, hotels, and maybe even a theme park.

Ancient Babylon - Where is it?

Ancient Babylon was located in Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. Today, the remains of the city are spread out over a cluster of mounds located on the Euphrates about 60 miles southwest of Baghdad, Iraq. The river divided the city in two, with the old city to the east and a smaller new city to the west. The river then fed main canals that watered each half. During the rein of Sennacherib, the city was destroyed by the Assyrians. Once the city was rebuilt, the name was changed to Babylonia. Later, the city became the internment site for the Hebrew captives who were marched into exile by King Nebuchadnezzar II in the sixth century, BCE.

The ground is very fertile and produces wild barley, chickpea, and sesame. The marshlands produce an edible root that is equal in nutrition to barley. The land is also rich with dates, apples, and other fruit as well as fish and birds.

Roman Catholic Church - The Key Question

Members of the Roman Catholic Church should ask themselves the same question that all members of any so-called Christian denomination should ask: "Do I have a personal relationship with my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ?" God really doesn't care about the particular rituals, customs and traditions of the "organized" denominations, as long as they don't get in the way of the undeniable foundation of the Christian faith, Jesus Christ. If we have a daily intimate and abiding walk with Jesus, the degree to which we practice our faith in denominational traditions while here on earth will not affect our eternal salvation. Fortunately, God is the perfect judge of the intent of our hearts.

Roman Catholic Church - The Core of Faith

Like all Christians, members of the Roman Catholic Church should be careful not to misplace their faith. For many of us, our faith is not always centered and founded in God through Jesus Christ, but rather in an organization or religion. Christianity must be a process of developing an abiding, growing, organic relationship with our Creator. It cannot be a trust in an institution or religion, nor can it be a cultural heritage. Religion and organizations are the invention of man, not of God. "I'm Catholic/christian because my father or grandfather was a Catholic" is a misguided view of what Christianity is all about. We must always develop and commit to a personal faith in God through Christ. We serve a personal God who cares about the little things as well as the big things in our lives. He desires from us a personal relationship. The relationships we develop on earth are for the purpose of modeling Christ in our character so that the world can see a minute portion of God's love present and moving outward from our hearts. Our neighbors, friends and family should see evidence of our personal relationship with God governing our speech, actions, character and values.

Roman Catholic Church - The Basis of Salvation

Like all Christians, members of the Roman Catholic Church should examine the basis of salvation in their lives. Salvation is not by works, but by grace. The Bible is very clear that we cannot earn our way into eternity with God. Our works are merely evidences of our faith, not the basis for salvation. The reason it's unnecessary to perform good works in order to secure salvation is that God himself, through the work of Christ, has performed all the work necessary. However, one of the very reasons God saved us is so we would perform good works, and if we do not perform good works we are in disobedience to His Word. The Bible is clear on the source of our salvation: "Not by works of righteousness which we have done, but according to his mercy he saved us, by the washing of regeneration, and renewing of the Holy Ghost" (Titus 3:5).

Many of us have confused the doctrine of justification with the doctrine of sanctification. According to the Bible, after a man is justified before God, he begins a lifelong process of sanctification where he grows in holiness and obedience to God's law. Justification is the starting point for sanctification (Romans 6). Justification removes the guilt of sin and restores the sinner to a relationship with God. Sanctification eliminates sinful habits and makes the sinner more and more like Jesus Christ. Justification takes place outside of the sinner in the court of God. Sanctification takes place in the soul and the spirit of man. Justification takes place once and for all. Sanctification is a continuous process of growth, as we "run the race" to the end of our lives. The work of sanctification is never complete in the life of a Christian.

Roman Catholic Church - Break Through to the Foundation!
Regardless of the "side-doctrines" of the Roman Catholic Church, or any other Christian denomination, the question for all of us is: "What does your personal relationship with Jesus Christ mean to you?" Whether we use the term "born-again," "regenerated" or "saved," the answer to that question must encompass these truths:

I Acknowledge - I'm a sinner needing a Savior.

I Turn - towards God and away from my old ways.

I Believe - that Jesus Christ is deity united with humanity. As the sinless Savior, He died to

pay the penalty for my sin. He died for me, so that I could gain salvation, forgiveness of sin,

and life everlasting.

I Receive - Jesus Christ into my heart and life as my Savior and Lord.

The Roman Catholic Church is no different than many other denominations, where all too often the traditions and customs of men have been substituted for the simple truth of the Gospel. Many Roman Catholic leaders and laymen are doing good deeds for which they are to be commended, but many have not surrendered to a true relationship with their Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ. There is no doubt that many Roman Catholics are saved, but they are saved because of their personal relationship with God, and not because of any religion. The Christian faith declared in the Bible is one of trust in a relationship with a Person, rather than in a religion, institution or organization.

When we stand before God one day, He will not ask us whether we are Catholic, Baptist, Presbyterian, Lutheran or Methodist. He will only ask us why He should allow us into His kingdom. How will you respond to that question? Will you tell Him what denomination you belonged to or that you attended church every Sunday? Will you try and tell Him you were a "good and moral person" who did works of charity? The biblical truth is that God doesn't consider any of these responses to be worthy of admission into heaven. Our prayer is that we'll all be able to respond to Him with an answer that He will honor: "I have confessed Christ before man and You Lord, and it is by grace alone that I come into your heaven."

What are the major events in Roman Catholic Church history?

To summarize Roman Catholic church history, we can begin with the establishment of Christianity as the state religion by Emperor Constantine around 313. At this time, the church began to make headway among the aristocracy. At this time, there was bitter controversy as well as the production of great theological treatises.

In the Early Middle Ages, after the invasion of Germanic peoples into the territories of the Roman Empire, there was a period of chaos. Barbarian kingdoms took the place of the Empire. Much ancient culture disappeared, and the Church preserved some of it.

In 800, the Pope crowned Charlemagne "emperor" in order to resurrect the ancient Western Roman Empire. This caused Christianity to move from the Mediterranean area to the area located from the kingdom of the Franks to Rome.

In the High Point of the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church experienced a reformation through the ranks of monasticism. This was the time of the Crusades, beginning in 1095 and lasting for several centuries. As a response to the rise of the "bourgeoisie" or the city people with money who were involved in commerce, cities grew, and new monastic orders arose. The most important were the Franciscans and Dominicans. They supported themselves through begging. They brought about a new awakening in missionary work and penetrated the universities where they were the leaders of "scholastic" theology. Important figures were Bonaventure (Franciscan) and Thomas Aquinas (Dominican).

Great cathedrals arose at this time and the papacy reached the height of its power and prestige, most notably in the papacy of Innocent III (1198-1216).

In the Late Middle Ages, the decline of the papacy was rapid. The seat of the papacy moved from Rome to Avignon on the French border (1309-1377). The "Great Western Schism" occurred at this time with two and sometimes three popes claiming the papacy (1378-1423). The movement that brought the Church back to one pope was the movement where councils met and made decisions. During this time, the popes began to pay more attention to building beautiful palaces and making war on Italian potentates than on the spiritual life. Scholastic theology became more and more specialized and of more interest to the theologians themselves than related to the daily life of the average Christian.

From 1453 to 1600, two important events took place in history that greatly affected the Roman Catholic Church. They were the "discovery" and conquest of the Americas and the Protestant Reformation. The Roman Catholic Church underwent a renewal called, the "Counter-Reformation."

The First Vatican Council was held in 1870. It was here that the pope was formally declared infallible. Pope Pius IX reacted to modernism -- democracy, freedom of conscience -- by condemning it. During this time, the Christian faith became truly universal through wide geographic expansion. Beginning with the papacy of John XXIII in 1958, there was an opening up to the modern world. The Second Vatican Council opened in 1962 brought further reform to the Church.

What is the hierarchy in the Roman Catholic Church?

The hierarchy in the Roman Catholic Church is structured. The Pope heads the College of Bishops and leads the whole Church of Christ. He stands in Christ's place, on Christ's behalf, to shepherd Christ's flock.

As successors of the Apostles, Bishops of Catholic Churches throughout the world form the College of Bishops. The bishops may exercise power over the Universal Church by coming together in an ecumenical council. If the Bishops are not united with the Pope, they have no authority at all.

The lay faithful are those who have been baptized, but not called by God to ordained ministry. Referred to as the laity, they are called in a special way to bring Christ to the world.

The College of Cardinals do not form part of the official hierarchy of the Church. However, certain bishops are granted special status within the Church by being elevated to the College of Cardinals. The Cardinals act as special advisors to the pope, and come together on the death of the pope to vote for his successor.

Episcopal Conferences (National Conferences of Bishops)

Every country or region has an Episcopal Conference. Disciplinary decisions are referred to them. For example, the general law in the code of Canon Law is that Catholics must do penance on Friday by abstaining from red meat. The Episcopal Conference of each region may substitute a different penance if they choose.

The Synods of Bishops are an advisory body to the Pope that meets in Rome on certain occasions. The Bishops consider important issues and develop church teachings. Even though the Pope makes the final decision on all matters, he did not often go against the recommendation of the Synod.

Roman Catholic doctrine - What are the basics?

Roman Catholic doctrine, as with any other organization, political party or religion, are its beliefs, tenets, principles, or teachings. It is through these beliefs or teachings that they base their practices. Councils, committees, or governing assemblies, decide upon doctrines. In the case of Catholics, the government of the Vatican has decreed their doctrines. That means they are subject to (and have implemented) change.

Basic practices (or traditions) vary within the Body of Christ. But the foundation of each Christian denomination is the same. God's divine Word is the blueprint for all Christian faith. "Christian" means follower of Jesus Christ. According to Ephesians 2:20 Jesus is the chief corner stone of God's household! And Hebrews 13:8 says, "Jesus Christ the same yesterday, and today, and for ever." His doctrines will never change.

The Word of God proclaims that Jesus is the only begotten Son of God whose purpose on earth was to die and be raised again as atonement for the sins of all mankind. This is the basis for all Christian Doctrine. The Catholic Church proclaims these doctrines:

Teaching that Jesus is the Son of God sent to die for the sins of the world

God is a triune God, consisting of God the Father, Jesus the Son, and the Holy Ghost.

In accepting Jesus and serving Him, believers are granted life eternal.

Members must accept the church as having the fullness of revelation, and according to

Roman Catholic catechism is the only Christian body that is "holy, universal and apostolic"

Apostolic succession is key in the faith, saying that the pope and bishops have varying

degrees of authority from Jesus.

Penance and the Eucharist are required at least once a year

As in all denominations, it is important to study the Word of God for yourself. When studying the above doctrines, you will discover that not all of them come from and have a basis in the Bible. In Hosea 4:6 God says, "My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge [of God and His Word]. . ." Know His Word and keep these two passages in mind when examining any doctrine:

"See to it that no one takes you captive through hollow and deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and the basic principles of this world rather than on Christ" (Colossians 1:16).

"So then, brothers, stand firm and hold on to the teachings (traditions) we passed on to you, whether by word of mouth or by letter (epistles)" (2 Thessalonians 2:15). Paul knew that we would face false teachings and worldliness to waver from truth. He reminds us to hold onto the truth of Christ's teachings (doctrines). Therefore, be sure your practices are based on truth and from your own heart with sincerity (Hebrews 10:22).